When the use of a cyber weapon compromises the confidentiality of information that is intended to be kept secret from unauthorized parties, it is usually classified as a “cyber exploitation” (Press accounts often use the term cyber attack when the activity conducted is actually cyber exploitation.) More generally, cyber exploitation refers to the use of cyber weapons to obtain information resident on or transiting through a system or network. A cyberattack might be conducted to prevent authorized users from accessing a computer or information service (a denial of service attack), to destroy computer-controlled machinery, or to destroy or alter critical data (e.g., timetables for the deployment of military logistics). The activities may also affect artifacts connected to these systems and networks-examples of such artifacts, often called cyber-physical devices, include generators, radar systems, and physical control devices for airplanes, automobiles, and chemical manufacturing plants. More generally, cyberattack refers to the use of cyber weapons to alter, usurp, deny, disrupt, deceive, degrade, or destroy computer systems or networks used by an adversary or competitor or the information and/or programs resident in or transiting these systems or networks. When the use of a cyber weapon affects the integrity or the availability of a service, it is usually classified as a cyberattack. But if the same computer program performing the same task were used by a terrorist or criminal (e.g., used against a government computer containing classified information or a corporate computer holding confidential business plans), that purpose would be regarded as a harmful or nonbenign misuse.
In the hands of the good guys, the purpose may be benign or societally beneficial-consider, for example, the properly authorized use of such a program by a law enforcement agency against a computer used by criminals. For example, a negative effect of a specific program might be to render ineffective the encryption capabilities of a targeted system. Similar comments apply to applications of IT with negative effects. 3 Guns are misused for harmful purposes primarily when they are put into the hands of the bad guys (e.g., criminals).
But in the hands of the good guys, (e.g., the police), its use is beneficial to society. A gun is designed to have negative effects on objects and people. Note the distinction between effects and purpose. In the lexicon of this article, these specific applications are “cyber weapons” 2 The negative effects of possible concern are effects on integrity (in which data or computer operations are altered with respect to what users expect), effects on availability (in which services provided to users of the system or network are unavailable when expected), and effects on confidentiality (in which information that users expect to keep secret is exposed to others). One commonly used definition of dual-use technology is “technology intended for beneficial purposes that can also be misused for harmful purposes” 1 This article focuses on the governance of specific applications of IT (or research aimed at developing such applications) designed and intended to create specific negative effects on a target’s computer or communications system or the information inside it, being carried through it, or being processed within it and which can be used for both beneficial and harmful purposes. government is exploring various ways of using cyberspace as an instrument of national policy to create political, military, diplomatic, economic, or business advantages, other nations-some of them with interests that do not align with those of the United States-are doing the same. Terrorists use IT for recruitment, training, communications, and public outreach, often in highly sophisticated ways, although to date they are not known to have used IT to commit destructive acts. Criminals use IT to steal intellectual property and commit fraud. Logistics for both civilian and military activities depend on IT-based scheduling and optimization.īut bad guys also use IT. Coordination of actions of military forces depends on networks that allow information about the battlefield to be shared. Modern military forces use weapons that are computer controlled. Delivery of food, water, energy, transportation, healthcare, and financial services all depend on IT, which is itself a major sector of the economy. Computers and networks are integral for most business processes, including payroll and accounting, tracking of sales and inventory, and research and development (R&D). Nations rely on information and information technology (IT) to ever-increasing degrees.
In the twenty-first century, information is the key coin of the realm.
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